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Lithography is a planographic process that performs a significant function in illustration and offset printing.
It is based on the principle that water does not combine with grease-based substances, preventing them from
smearing an outline on an unpolished surface. The contour does not need to be engraved into the plate, as in
the case of gravure printing, or raised above the surface, as in the letterpress process. These laborious opera-
tions ensure that only the design to be printed catches and retains the ink transferred to the paper.
In lithography, the artist draws on a leveled, grainy plate made of limestone, zinc, aluminum, or specially
treated paper with a grease pencil, a crayon, or tusche, a greasy liquid. After sketching the contour on the
plate, the artist coats both the drawn and the undrawn portions of the plate with an inking roller dipped in a
solution of nitric acid and gum arabic. The gum arabic envelops the greased surfaces and prevents ink from
penetrating into the greaseless areas. The artist dampens the surface with water, which is repelled by the
greased areas. Then the surface is covered with thick, oily ink and pressed onto paper. The sheet picks up the
ink from the design while the damp stone around the pattern keeps the ink from spreading.
In offset lithography, shiny sheets of zinc and aluminum are used instead of the heavy, hard-to-handle stone
plates. The metal plates are scoured by emery dust and marble chips to give them a grained finish. The sub-
jects to be printed are laid down photographically, and rotary presses automatically moisten, ink, and print
hundreds of impressions per hour.
Text 3. Read, translate and retell.
The Globe Theater, where most of Shakespeare's plays were staged and performed, was located in London.
Cuthbert and Richard Burbage built the theater in 1599 with materials left over from the construction of
London's first playhouse, the Theater. They constructed the Globe on the south side of the Thames River in
the little town of Southwark and counted on making the theater a draw for the locals. Little is known about
the architectural design of the theater except what can be deduced from maps and the layout of the plays pre-
sented there. It appears that the Globe was either round or polygonal on the outside but most likely round on
the inside. In keeping with the contemporary imitations of Roman government buildings, its roof was most
probably shaped as a crude dome. It can be further deduced that the structure was decorated with pediments,
arches, columns, and ornate staircases with carvings of shells, feathers, and cupids. The size of its audience
is projected at as many as 3,000 spectators both in the amphitheater and in the balcony. The Globe burned
down in 1613; it was rebuilt on the same foundation a year later, but its external walls were curved at an an-
gle different from that of the original. The theater was built hastily, and evidently safety was not a top prior-
ity for either the engineer or the company. After several nearly fatal accidents, the Globe was torn down for
good in 1644.
Text 4. Read, translate and retell.
There are many reasons why food fads have continued to flourish. Garlic has long been touted as an essential
ingredient of physical prowess and as a flu remedy, squash has been thought by some to cure digestive disor-
ders, and red pepper has been alleged to promote endurance. The natural human desire for a simple solution
to a difficult problem sets the stage for promoting miraculous potions, pills, and combinations of chemicals.
The gullible individuals who eagerly embrace any second-hand information with scientific overtones provide
the foundation for healthy business enterprises.
A person who has never crossed the threshold of a health food store may be astounded, bewildered, or over-
joyed. Countless elixirs, herbs, powders, sweeteners, and other fascinating extracts are only a fraction of the
high-profit selection. The available literature includes pamphlets extolling the amazing return of youth one
can anticipate while drinking a potion steeped with tropical weeds, as well as volumes assuring the reader of
an almost eternal longevity.
The store is directly keyed to arouse visitors' concern over their health and to capitalize on real and imagined
problems by offering solutions that, incidentally, cost more than the customer may be able to afford. Health
food store patrons are often cajoled into buying tonics that promise to make the functioning of healthy organs
even better, regardless of whether an improvement is called for. Promotion of expensive products that con-
sumers do not actually need takes considerable initiative and insight. On occasion, there may even be some
slight disregard for truth in an entrepreneur's zeal to cure customers of ills – for a price.
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