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Sex-trait stereotypes may be defined as a set of psychological attributes that characterize men more fre-
quently than women. Thus, males are often described as ambitious, unemotional, and independent and, on
the other hand, selfish, unrefined, and insensitive. Females are described as emotional, irrational, high-
strung, and tentative. In spite of the egalitarian movement, recent studies have demonstrated that sex-trait
stereotypes remain common among young adults today. In fact, such stereotyping has proved to be the psy-
chological justification for social beliefs concerning the appropriateness of various activities for men and
women that further perpetuate the different sex roles traditionally ascribed to men and women.
The awareness of sex-trait stereotypes in the United States develops in a linear fashion between the ages of
four and ten. Generally, knowledge of male stereotypical characteristics develops earlier, whereas knowledge
of female characteristics increases more rapidly between the ages of four and seven. While the reasons for
this learning are not fully understood, evidence suggests that at the preschool level children's literature and
television programs provide powerful models and reinforcement for stereotyped views.
Studies designed to compare sex-trait stereotypes cross-nationally show a high degree of correspondence in
the characteristics ascribed to men and women. As findings have been obtained in other countries, two hy-
potheses have been advanced to explain the commonalities in sex trait stereotyping. One states that pancul-
tural similarities play a role in the psychological characteristics attributed to men and women, and the second
states that the general picture is one of cultural relativism.
Text 5. Read, translate and retell.
Even with his diverse experience as an elected official at the state level, Andrew Johnson was the only presi-
dent of the United States ever to be impeached, primarily because of his violent temper and unyielding stub-
bornness. His career started in 1828 with his election to the city council of Greenville, Tennessee, and after
two years as an alderman, he took office as mayor. His advancements followed in rapid succession when he
was elected to the Tennessee state senate, then as the state governor, and later to the U.S. House of Represen-
tatives for five consecutive terms.
In 1864, Johnson ran for the office of vice-president on the Lincoln-Johnson ticket and was inaugurated in
1865. After Lincoln's assassination six weeks into his term, Johnson found himself president at a time when
southern leaders were concerned about their forced alliance with the northern states and feared retaliation for
their support of the secession. Instead, however, with the diplomatic skill he had learned from Lincoln, John-
son offered full pardon to almost all Confederates on the condition that they take an oath of allegiance. He
further reorganized the former Confederate states and set up legislative elections.
Congressional opposition to his peace-making policies resulted in gridlock between the House and Johnson,
and the stalemate grew into to open conflict on the issue of the emancipation of slaves. While Johnson held
the view that newly freed slaves lacked understanding and knowledge of civil liberties to vote intelligently,
Congress overrode Johnson's veto of the Civil Rights Bill, which awarded them citizenship and ratified the
Fourteenth Amendment. In the years that followed, Congress passed bills depriving the president of the
power to pardon political criminals, stripping away his status of commander-in-chief, and taking away John-
son's right to dismiss civil and executive officers from their duties. Johnson vetoed each bill, and each veto
was overridden. When Johnson dismissed the secretary of war, Edwin Stanton, Stanton refused to step down
and was supported by the House of Representatives, which voted to impeach Johnson. At the trial, the Senate
came one vote short of the two-thirds majority necessary to remove him from office. After Johnson's term
expired, he returned to his home state, but in 1875 he was elected senator and went back to Washington to
take his seat.
СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННОЙ ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ
Hinkel Eli. TOEFL strategies / Eli Hinkel. 2 nd ed. Seattle University, 1998.
