Английский язык. Конова М.А. - 75 стр.

                                                   неожиданная удача,
   ad valorem tariffs                              неожиданный доход
                                                   тарифы, взимаемые
                                                   соответственно стоимости
   trade prefrences                                товара
                                                   предпочтения ( особые
                                                   торговые преимущества,
                                                   предоставляемые торговым
                                                   партнерам из дружественных
                                                   стран в целях развития
                                                   экспорта )

      12.2 Read the text about major types and forms of customs tariffs

                                       Text A
                                       Tariffs
      International trade includes all economic transactions that are made
between countries. Accounts of barter of goods or of services among different
people can be traced back almost as far as the record of human history.
International trade, however, is specifically an exchange between members of
different nations. Accounts and explanations of such trade begins only with the
rise of the modern nation-state at the close of the European Middle Ages.
     All nations interfere with international transactions to at least some degree.
Tariffs may be imposed on imports — in some instances making them so costly
as to bar completely the entry of the goods involved. Quotas may limit the
permissible volume of imports. State subsidies may be offered to encourage
exports. Money-capital exports may be restricted or prohibited. Investments by
foreigners in domestic plants and equipment may be similarly restrained. These
interferences may be simply the result of special-interest pleading, because
particular groups suffer as a consequence of import competition. Or a
government may impose restrictions because it feels impelled to take account
of factors that comparative advantage sets aside.
     The general pattern of interference follows the old mercantilist dictum of
discouraging imports and encouraging exports.
     Such interference or trade barriers may include state trading organizations
and government procurement practice that may be used preferentially.
Customs classification and valuation procedures, health regulations and
marking requirements may also have a restrictive effect on trade. Excise taxes
may act as a barrier to trade if they are levied at higher rates on imports than on
domestic goods.
     Different government regulations and practices also act as barriers to
trade. For example, a tariff, or duty, which is a tax levied on a commodity when
it crosses the boundary of the Customs area. The boundary may be that of a
nation or group of nations that have agreed to impose a common tax on goods
entering their territory. Protective tariffs are designed to shield domestic