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The sampling techniques can be divided into two types:
− probability or representative sampling;
− non-probability or judgemental sampling.
Choice of sampling technique or techniques is dependent on your research question(s) and objectives:
− probability samples are required if you need to estimate statistically the characteristics of the population from a
sample;
− if you do not require such generalisations you can make use of non-probability sampling techniques.
Factors such as the confidence that is needed in the findings, accuracy required and likely categories for analyses
will affect the size of the sample that needs to be collected:
− statistical analyses usually require a minimum sample size of 30;
− research question(s) and objectives that do not require statistical estimation may need far smaller samples.
Sample size and the technique used are also influenced by the availability of resources, in particular financial sup-
port and time available to select the sample and to collect, enter into a computer and analyse the data.
Probability sampling techniques all necessitate some form of sampling frame, so they are often more time consum-
ing than non-probability techniques. Sampling frame is the complete list of all the cases in the population, from which a
probability sample is drawn. Where it is not possible to construct a sampling frame you will need to use non-probability
sampling.
2. If your research question(s) and objectives are concerned with what people do, an obvious way in which to dis-
cover this is to watch them do it. This is essentially what observation involves: the systematic observation, recording,
description, analysis and interpretation of people’s behaviour.
There are two types of observation. Participant observation is qualitative and is concerned with discovering the
meanings that people attach to their actions. By contrast, structured observation is quantitative and is more concerned
with the frequency of those actions.
Participant observation is a method in which the researcher participates in the lives and activities of those whom
they are studying. It is used to attempt to get to the root of ‘what is going on’ in a wide range of social settings. Partici-
pant observation means that you adopt a number of potential roles differentiated by the degree to which your identity is
concealed from the subjects of the research and the degree to which you participate in the events you are studying. Par-
ticipant observation must avoid the trap of mere storytelling, its purpose is to develop theory. A prevalent form of data
analysis used here is analytic induction. This may lead to an initial hypothesis being redeveloped more than once.
Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterised by a high level of predeter-
mined structure and quantitative analysis. A choice may be made between ‘off-the-shelf’ coding schedules and a sched-
ule that you design for your own purpose. Alternatively you may decide to use a ‘hybrid’. The main threats to reliability
and validity inherent in structured observation are subject error, time error and observer effects.
3. Data that have already been collected for some other purpose, perhaps processed and subsequently stored, are
termed secondary data. There are three main types of secondary data: documentary, survey and those from multiple
sources. Documentary secondary data include both written (such as notices, correspondence, minutes of meetings, re-
ports to shareholders, diaries and transcripts of speeches) and non-written documents (like tape and video recordings,
pictures, films and television programs, DVDs and CDs).
Any secondary data you use will have been collected for a specific purpose. This purpose may not match that of
your research. In addition, the secondary data are likely to be less current than any data you collect yourself. Finding the
secondary data you require is a matter of detective work. This will involve you in establishing whether the sort of data
that you require are likely to be available and locating the precise data.
4. An interview is a purposeful discussion between two or more people. The use of interviews can help you to
gather valid and reliable data that are relevant to your research question(s) and objectives.
Interviews may be highly formalized and structured, using standardized questions for each respondent, or they
may be informal and unstructured conversations. In between there are intermediate positions. One typology that is
commonly used is thus related to the level of formality and structure, whereby interviews may be categorized as one of:
– structured interviews;
– semi-structured interviews;
– unstructured interviews.
Another typology differentiates between standardized interviews and
non-standardised interviews. The third typology differentiates between respondent interviews and informant inter-
views.
Structured interviews use questionnaires based on a predetermined and standardized or identical set of questions.
By comparison, semi-structured and unstructured interviews are non-standardised. In semi-structured interviews the
researcher will have a list of themes and questions to be covered, although these may vary from interview to interview.
Unstructured interviews are informal. You would use these to explore in depth a general area in which you are inter-
ested. These interviews are referred to as in-depth interviews. There is no predetermined list of questions to work
through in this situation, although you need to have a clear idea about the aspect or aspects that you want to explore.
The interviewee is given the opportunity to talk freely about events, behaviour and beliefs in relation to the topic area,
so that this type of interaction is sometimes called non-directive. It has been labelled as an informant interview since it
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