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5
2. Spiritual concerns are usually associated with religion, but worldly, ma-
terial concerns are usually identified with government authority. In some cul-
tures, however, the spiritual leader is also the head of government.
3. When someone asks you to guess what the future will bring, you are being
asked to theorize about what may happen.
4. In some countries, an unpopular political, spiritual, or artistic leader can
be forced into leaving his country and living in a foreign land.
5. In many religions, the leaders are not elected. The heads of the religion
choose their successors.
6. Many parents give their children a religious education, hoping that when
the children grow up they will be observant members of the religion.
7. Some young people feel that religious concerns are no longer related to
modern life.
8. History shows that brutal dictators do not think much about the long-
term interests of their people. They are often reckless and interested only in the
moment.
9. Some religions are practiced only among their own people, but other re-
ligions seek to spread their ideas among as many people as possible.
a) designate d) propagate g) short-sighted
b) exile e) reincarnation h) speculate
c) practicing f) relevant i) temporal
Part II
Religion
Religion is one of the phenomena that influences and excites the human
mind since the time immemorial. One of the many definitions of religion re-
gards it as human being’s relation to what people consider holy, sacred, or di-
vine, namely God or gods or spirits. Worship is probably the most basic ele-
ment of religion, but moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious
institutions are generally also constituent elements of the religious life.
A lot of scientists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries tried to give clas-
sifications of religion from different points of view. Considerable progress to-
ward scientific classifications of religions was marked by the emergence of
morphological schemes, which assume that religion in its history has passed
through a series of discernible stages of development, each having readily iden-
tifiable characteristics and each constituting an advance beyond the former
stage. So essential is the notion of progressive development to morphological
schemes that they might also be called evolutionary classifications. The pioneer
of morphological classifications was E.B. Tylor, a British anthropologist,
whose Primitive Culture (1871) is among the most influential books ever writ-
ten in its field. Tylor developed the thesis of animism, a view that the essential
6
element in all religions is belief in spiritual beings. According to Tylor, the be-
lief arises naturally from elements universal in human experience (e. g., death,
sleep, dreams, trances and hallucinations) and leads through processes of primi-
tive logic to the belief in a spiritual reality distinct from the body and capable of
existing independently.
Of immediate interest is the classification of religions drawn from Tylor’s
animistic thesis. Ancestor worship, prevalent in preliterate societies, is obei-
sance to the spirits of the dead. Fetishism, the veneration of objects believed to
have magical or supernatural potency, springs from the association of spirits
with particular places or things and leads to idolatry, in which the image is
viewed as the symbol of a spiritual being or deity. Totemism, the belief in an
association between particular groups of people and certain spirits that serve as
guardians of those people, arises when the entire world is conceived as peopled
by spiritual beings. At a still higher stage, polytheism, the interest in particular
deities or spirits disappears and is replaced by concern for a “species” deity
who represents an entire class of similar spiritual realities. Polytheism may
evolve into monotheism, a belief in a supreme and unique deity. Tylor’s theory
of the nature of religions and the resultant classification were so logical, con-
vincing, and comprehensive that for a number of years they remained virtually
unchallenged.
The morphological classification of religions received more sophisticated
expression from C.P. Tiele, a 19th century Dutch scholar and an important pio-
neer in the scientific study of religion. His point of departure was that of distin-
guishing between nature and ethical religions. Ethical religion, in Tiele’s views,
develops out of nature religion and falls into two subcategories. First are the na-
tional nomistic (legal) religions that are particularistic, limited to the horizon of
one people only and based upon a sacred law drawn from sacred books. Above
them are the universalistic religions, qualitatively different in kind, aspiring to
be accepted by all men, and based upon abstract principles and maxims. In both
subtypes, doctrines and teachings are associated with the careers of distinct per-
sonalities who play important roles in their origin and formation. Tiele found
only three examples of this highest type of religion: Islam, Christianity and
Buddhism. Tiele’s classification enjoyed a great vogue and influenced many
who came after him.
The past 150 years have also produced several classifications of religion
based on speculative and abstract concepts that serve the purposes of philoso-
phy. The principal example of these is the scheme of G.W.F. Hegel in his fa-
mous Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (1832). In general, Hegel’s under-
standing of religion coincided with his philosophical thought; he viewed the
whole of human history as a vast dialectical movement toward the realization of
freedom. The reality of history, he held, is Spirit, and the story of religion is the
2. Spiritual concerns are usually associated with religion, but worldly, ma- element in all religions is belief in spiritual beings. According to Tylor, the be-
terial concerns are usually identified with government authority. In some cul- lief arises naturally from elements universal in human experience (e. g., death,
tures, however, the spiritual leader is also the head of government. sleep, dreams, trances and hallucinations) and leads through processes of primi-
3. When someone asks you to guess what the future will bring, you are being tive logic to the belief in a spiritual reality distinct from the body and capable of
asked to theorize about what may happen. existing independently.
4. In some countries, an unpopular political, spiritual, or artistic leader can Of immediate interest is the classification of religions drawn from Tylor’s
be forced into leaving his country and living in a foreign land. animistic thesis. Ancestor worship, prevalent in preliterate societies, is obei-
5. In many religions, the leaders are not elected. The heads of the religion sance to the spirits of the dead. Fetishism, the veneration of objects believed to
choose their successors. have magical or supernatural potency, springs from the association of spirits
6. Many parents give their children a religious education, hoping that when with particular places or things and leads to idolatry, in which the image is
the children grow up they will be observant members of the religion. viewed as the symbol of a spiritual being or deity. Totemism, the belief in an
7. Some young people feel that religious concerns are no longer related to association between particular groups of people and certain spirits that serve as
modern life. guardians of those people, arises when the entire world is conceived as peopled
8. History shows that brutal dictators do not think much about the long- by spiritual beings. At a still higher stage, polytheism, the interest in particular
term interests of their people. They are often reckless and interested only in the deities or spirits disappears and is replaced by concern for a “species” deity
moment. who represents an entire class of similar spiritual realities. Polytheism may
9. Some religions are practiced only among their own people, but other re- evolve into monotheism, a belief in a supreme and unique deity. Tylor’s theory
ligions seek to spread their ideas among as many people as possible. of the nature of religions and the resultant classification were so logical, con-
a) designate d) propagate g) short-sighted vincing, and comprehensive that for a number of years they remained virtually
b) exile e) reincarnation h) speculate unchallenged.
c) practicing f) relevant i) temporal The morphological classification of religions received more sophisticated
expression from C.P. Tiele, a 19th century Dutch scholar and an important pio-
Part II neer in the scientific study of religion. His point of departure was that of distin-
Religion guishing between nature and ethical religions. Ethical religion, in Tiele’s views,
Religion is one of the phenomena that influences and excites the human develops out of nature religion and falls into two subcategories. First are the na-
mind since the time immemorial. One of the many definitions of religion re- tional nomistic (legal) religions that are particularistic, limited to the horizon of
gards it as human being’s relation to what people consider holy, sacred, or di- one people only and based upon a sacred law drawn from sacred books. Above
vine, namely God or gods or spirits. Worship is probably the most basic ele- them are the universalistic religions, qualitatively different in kind, aspiring to
ment of religion, but moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious be accepted by all men, and based upon abstract principles and maxims. In both
institutions are generally also constituent elements of the religious life. subtypes, doctrines and teachings are associated with the careers of distinct per-
A lot of scientists throughout the 19th and 20th centuries tried to give clas- sonalities who play important roles in their origin and formation. Tiele found
sifications of religion from different points of view. Considerable progress to- only three examples of this highest type of religion: Islam, Christianity and
ward scientific classifications of religions was marked by the emergence of Buddhism. Tiele’s classification enjoyed a great vogue and influenced many
morphological schemes, which assume that religion in its history has passed who came after him.
through a series of discernible stages of development, each having readily iden- The past 150 years have also produced several classifications of religion
tifiable characteristics and each constituting an advance beyond the former based on speculative and abstract concepts that serve the purposes of philoso-
stage. So essential is the notion of progressive development to morphological phy. The principal example of these is the scheme of G.W.F. Hegel in his fa-
schemes that they might also be called evolutionary classifications. The pioneer mous Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (1832). In general, Hegel’s under-
of morphological classifications was E.B. Tylor, a British anthropologist, standing of religion coincided with his philosophical thought; he viewed the
whose Primitive Culture (1871) is among the most influential books ever writ- whole of human history as a vast dialectical movement toward the realization of
ten in its field. Tylor developed the thesis of animism, a view that the essential freedom. The reality of history, he held, is Spirit, and the story of religion is the
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