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12. The teacher came into the classroom and asked the pupils, "What are you doing?"
13. Henry asked Tom, "Who did you visit in the hospital?"
14. I asked Bob, "Why didn't you answer my letter?"
15. The teacher wrote the answers on the blackboard and then asked, "Who has got all the answers
right?"
16. The little boy asked his father, "Why does a policeman wear a uniform?"
17. I asked him, "Who are you looking at?"
18. Tom asked the teacher, "What does the word mean?"
Lesson 3
Education and Construction - a Typology of School-Building
Pre-reading Discussion
1. What types of Russian schools do you know?
2. Are there any differences between school building and university building?
3. How many buildings does TSTU comprise? Are they all of the same design?
4. Why do architects make different designs for town schools and village schools?
5. Is it necessary to use new building technologies while designing educational institutions?
Modern school building covers a broad spectrum, from free and open forms to strict, rational layouts. In
part, these reflect different architectural approaches; but other factors also play a role, such as the type of
school, requirements for the development of social competence, the need for individual instruction, ecological
constraints, and the use of new technology.
In Germany, the educational system is divided into a number of tiers: primary level, secondary level 1, and
a secondary level 2 (roughly equivalent to the sixth-form college). In some states of Germany, the comprehen-
sive school is the basic type. Although the federal states have their own guidelines for schools, school building
is the responsibility of the municipal or district authorities, with the superior school authority and the various
ministries for cultural affairs granting final consent.
In Austria, the Federal Property Corporation (BIG) has been responsible since 1992 for property develop-
ment on behalf of the republic - including school building. The BIG also decides on the award of contracts, few
of which are granted to younger architects or smaller practices, however. On the other hand, the high architec-
tural quality of public building in Austria shows that the BIG is not solely concerned with cost efficiency. In
France, many aspects of the country's administration have been decentralised since 1982. The central govern-
ment has delegated responsibility for certain schools to the various regions and departments. This reform led to
the creation of many new schools in the 1980s, with opportunities for younger architects to gain commissions.
The public education system in the US is also largely decentralised, with considerable differences existing
between the various states in the financing and construction of schools. Architects are selected mainly by inter-
view. Competitions are the exception. The Pisa Study, which provided an international comparison of educa-
tional standards, has caused something of a stir in Germany with its disappointing assessment of that country's
teaching system. Up to now, the traditional classroom has remained the normal place of instruction. A great
deal of thought has been given to its design and fitting out. In most cases, classrooms receive daylight only
from one side. A floor area of 1.8-2.2 m
2
per pupil is the required standard, and the recommended number of
pupils per class is between 8 and 14 in schools that provide special educational support and between 30 and 35
in mainstream schools leading to higher educational levels. Since the tight constraints of the normal school
brief allow architects little latitude, spatial quality usually manifests itself in the concept and design of the in-
termediate zones, which play a major role in terms of communication. Acoustics is also an important aspect.
Reverberation times of 0.3-0.5 seconds are recommended with background noise levels of 30 dB (A).
A further design criterion in schools is the location of the various functions. Areas with noisy activities
should be separated from the classrooms. At the same time, direct links are desirable between all areas. School
buildings can, therefore, be divided into various categories, according to their layout and access systems: cen-
tral, linear, combined linear, linear with a central focus, and additive.
The school in Markt Indersdorf by Allmann Sattier Wappner is an example of a layout with central access,
necessitated in part by the extensive spatial programme and the large number of pupils. The linear access
routes, laid out in the form of a rectangle around a central space, allow a clear articulation of the individual ar-
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