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radio-telephone service linked New York and London in 1927. However, the long distance coaxial cable,
which was hailed as unprecedented, came on the scene in 1936 connecting New York and Philadelphia. The
Bell Laboratories research facility came up with the transistor to replace the cumbersome vacuum tube, thus
diminishing the size of the electronic switch system to about 10 percent of that of the original. Crossbar
switching, installed in terminals in 1938, operated on the principle of an electromagnetic force, which rotated
horizontal and vertical bars within a rectangular frame and brought contacts together in a split second. A
technological breakthrough in the form of underseas cables between the United States and Hawaii was im-
plemented almost twenty years later. An extension was connected to Japan in 1964.
Text 2. Read, translate and retell.
Psychology recognizes two types of research, experimental and differential. The former is concerned mainly
with the overall processes governing human activities, and the latter sets out to establish individual differ-
ences in performance. More recent studies have demonstrated the need for a third type of psychological
study, namely, that which has to do with human development. Rather than considering this aspect of human
performance as a part of the first two types, scientists have noted that developmental research indeed belongs
in a separate category in and of itself. Piaget's work would indisputably fall in the area of developmental
theories that have had great impact on both experimental and differential research. When examining Piaget's
studies, it is necessary to keep in mind that, while his theories have been highly influential, his methodology
has been strongly criticized. The primary shortfall of his work had to do with a lack of definition and stan-
dardization in his data and experiment design.
Text 3. Read, translate and retell.
Evaporation and recondensation of water entail an important step in purification called distillation. During
evaporation, water molecules rise from the surface of a solution, but the salts and other minerals that had
been dissolved in it crystallize and precipitate from the solution, forming sediment. As water is heated, its
molecules acquire sufficient energy to break the weak pull between them and rise in the form of vapor. As
the vapor temperature falls, the attractive force between molecules grows to hold the molecules together, re-
sulting in condensation. When water vapor recondenses, it consists only of water. Pure water used in chemi-
cal laboratories is obtained by this process. Water from the ocean and other sources is perpetually evapo-
rated, purified, and eventually recondensed in the atmosphere.
Water can be purified by distillation or other methods. The hydrological cycle of the earth consists of water
vapor entering the atmosphere through evaporation and coming back via condensation and precipitation.
Since oceans occupy approximately 70 percent of the planet's surface, the largest amount of water in the cy-
cle is derived from the evaporation of water from the ocean surfaces. A secondary source of water vapor lies
in rivers, lakes, and soil. Plant transpiration occurs in areas with heavily vegetated land and adds to the vapor
in the cycle.
Text 4. Read, translate and retell.
Observations of nature gained a foothold in art in the 1860s and 1870s when painters interested in science
attempted to analyze the effects of light on color by means of physics. If the goal of impressionist painters
was to copy the visual qualities of sunlight at different angles, they needed to reproduce light as it appears to
the spectator when reflected from the surfaces of structures. In painting, the effects of shade were conveyed
by using small strokes to minimize breaks between hues. The so-called divided color method appeared to
grasp a shimmering reflection of shadows when minimal portions of primary-color paints were applied di-
rectly to the canvas, instead of being blended on the palette.
Edouard Manet departed from the fairy-tale style of painting with its tacit symbolism and centered his com-
positions around the visual reality of ordinary objects. Mary Cassatt followed with her spontaneous and sub-
tle portraits of children, and Edgar Degas depicted ballet dancers in their artful poses and the color schemes
of their costumes in soft colors.
Postimpressionism built on the techniques developed by impressionists and supplemented it with keen in-
sight into other dimensions of objects and scenes. Paul Gaugin chose to disregard the classical conventions
of composition, the application of color, and the shaping of form and imitated primitivist art that upheld the
beauty of native drawings in Tahiti. Henri Matisse created a unique style of poster graphics, deceptively
simplistic in its rhythm and texture. In his view, paintings were intended to brighten and improve reality, not
copy it. He noted that photography can accomplish this latter goal just as well, or even better.
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