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23
memory constitute a hierarchy in which forms that emerged early in evolution represent
the lower levels, and forms evolving later represent the higher levels. Because evidence
exists showing that the operations of different forms are related to different neuro-
anatomical substrates, the different forms of learning and memory have been
increasingly thought of as constituting different memory systems. All systems have in
common the ability to retain and to make available for use in ongoing behavior and
cognitive functioning, effects of earlier behavior and experiences. They differ in the
kind of information they handle, and in the nature of their operations.
Separate neural systems are believed to underlie simple forms of learning, such as
sensitization. Some evidence also exists for separate neural bases for short-term
memory and long-term memory. However, most of the research concerned with the
classification of forms of learning and memory has revolved around three hypothetical
systems: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.
Episodic memory is the memory system that makes it possible for a person to
remember concrete personal episodes or events dated in the subjective past – that is, to
remember that he or she did or witnessed something on a particular occasion at a
particular time. This ability to remember personal experiences is possessed by all
normal individuals, but it is absent in very young children, and absent or less well
developed in lower organisms. Episodic remembering is, in its essence, a mental
phenomenon. The nature of the conscious experience of remembering a past event
differs qualitatively from the nature of the conscious experience resulting from the
actualization of general knowledge about the world. The hallmark of episodic – memory
capability is the rememberer’s strong belief that the remembered event did in fact occur
and that he or she was present when it occurred.
At the next level of the classificatory scheme is semantic memory. It is concerned
with what William James called “conceptions”, or what today can be described as
“general knowledge about the world”. Semantic memory was initially defined in close
reference to knowledge expressible in language, but is now conceptualized much more
broadly, consisting of a number of hypothetical subdivisions. The information that the
semantic system handles need not have any personal relevance to the individual. Neither
need it refer to the past, or any other particular time in the individual’s existence. The
semantic system allows the individual to construct mental models of both concrete and
abstract parts and aspects of the world. It makes possible the cognitive representation of
stimuli, objects, situations, facts and events, and the utilization of information thus
represented in the absence of original stimuli and events.
Procedural memory represents a lower, more general level of the classificatory
hierarchy. It is thought in evolution and that is shared in various enables organisms to
retain learned connections stimulus-response patterns and sequences. Learning in
procedural memory is nonsymbolic; it can be expressed only in terms of specific
responses or behaviors. This expression can occur “automatically”, in the absence of
directed attention.
The distinction between procedural and other types of memory is now widely
accepted but the nature of the concepts of episodic and semantic memory, on the other
hand, is still a subject of intense debate.
23
memory constitute a hierarchy in which forms that emerged early in evolution represent
the lower levels, and forms evolving later represent the higher levels. Because evidence
exists showing that the operations of different forms are related to different neuro-
anatomical substrates, the different forms of learning and memory have been
increasingly thought of as constituting different memory systems. All systems have in
common the ability to retain and to make available for use in ongoing behavior and
cognitive functioning, effects of earlier behavior and experiences. They differ in the
kind of information they handle, and in the nature of their operations.
Separate neural systems are believed to underlie simple forms of learning, such as
sensitization. Some evidence also exists for separate neural bases for short-term
memory and long-term memory. However, most of the research concerned with the
classification of forms of learning and memory has revolved around three hypothetical
systems: episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.
Episodic memory is the memory system that makes it possible for a person to
remember concrete personal episodes or events dated in the subjective past – that is, to
remember that he or she did or witnessed something on a particular occasion at a
particular time. This ability to remember personal experiences is possessed by all
normal individuals, but it is absent in very young children, and absent or less well
developed in lower organisms. Episodic remembering is, in its essence, a mental
phenomenon. The nature of the conscious experience of remembering a past event
differs qualitatively from the nature of the conscious experience resulting from the
actualization of general knowledge about the world. The hallmark of episodic – memory
capability is the rememberer’s strong belief that the remembered event did in fact occur
and that he or she was present when it occurred.
At the next level of the classificatory scheme is semantic memory. It is concerned
with what William James called “conceptions”, or what today can be described as
“general knowledge about the world”. Semantic memory was initially defined in close
reference to knowledge expressible in language, but is now conceptualized much more
broadly, consisting of a number of hypothetical subdivisions. The information that the
semantic system handles need not have any personal relevance to the individual. Neither
need it refer to the past, or any other particular time in the individual’s existence. The
semantic system allows the individual to construct mental models of both concrete and
abstract parts and aspects of the world. It makes possible the cognitive representation of
stimuli, objects, situations, facts and events, and the utilization of information thus
represented in the absence of original stimuli and events.
Procedural memory represents a lower, more general level of the classificatory
hierarchy. It is thought in evolution and that is shared in various enables organisms to
retain learned connections stimulus-response patterns and sequences. Learning in
procedural memory is nonsymbolic; it can be expressed only in terms of specific
responses or behaviors. This expression can occur “automatically”, in the absence of
directed attention.
The distinction between procedural and other types of memory is now widely
accepted but the nature of the concepts of episodic and semantic memory, on the other
hand, is still a subject of intense debate.
