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from naturally scarce
precious metals
and
shell
s
to entirely artificial money such as
banknotes. Modern money (and most ancient money too) is essentially a token —
in other words, an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common type of
physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of
money's essential properties.
The use of proto-money may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. In
cultures where metal working was unknown, shell or ivory jewellery were the most
divisible, easily storable and transportable, scarce, and hard to counterfeit objects
that could be made.
Bartering has several problems, most notably the coincidence of wants
problem, but even if a farmer growing fruit and a wheat-field farmer need what the
other produces a direct barter swap is impossible for seasonal fruit that would spoil
before the grain harvest. A solution is an indirect trade through a third,
"intermediate", commodity: the fruit is exchanged for this when it ripens. By
overcoming the limitations of simple barter, a commodity money makes the
market in all other commodities more liquid.
Where trade is common, barter systems usually lead quite rapidly to
several key goods being imbued with monetary properties. The emergence of
monetary goods is a quite natural market phenomenon.
From early times, metals, where available, have usually been favored for
use as money over such commodities as cattle, cowry shells, or salt, because they
are at once durable, portable, and easily divisible.
The use of gold as money has begun in the fourth millennium B.C. when
the Egyptians used gold bars of a set weight as a medium of exchange. The first
gold coins were introduced about 650 B.C. in Lydia (now western Turkey).
Coins were typically minted by governments in a carefully protected
process, and then stamped with an emblem that guaranteed the weight and value of
the metal.
Metal based coins had the advantage of carrying their value within the
coins themselves — on the other hand, they induced manipulations: the clipping of
coins in the attempt to get and recycle the precious metal. A greater problem was
the simultaneous co-existence of gold, silver and copper coins in Europe. English
and Spanish traders valued gold coins more than silver coins, as many of their
neighbors did, with the effect that the English gold-based guinea coin began to rise
against the English silver based crown in the 1670s and 1680s.
Stability came into the system with national Banks guaranteeing to change
money into gold at a promised rate; it did, however, not come easily. The Bank of
England risked a national financial catastrophe in the 1730s when customers
demanded their money be changed into gold in a moment of crisis. Eventually
London's merchants saved the bank and the nation with financial guarantees.
Another step in the evolution of money was the change from a coin being
a unit of weight to being a unit of value. A distinction could be made between its
commodity value and its specie value. The difference is these values is
seigniorage.
The system of commodity money in many instances evolved into a system
the companies are, the bi
gger their relation becomes, maximizing control over a
single piece of information.
Advertisers may try to minimize information about or from consumer
groups, consumer-controlled purchasing initiatives (as joint purchase systems), or
consumer-controlled quality information systems.
Another indirect effect of advertising is to modify the nature of the
communication media where it is shown. Media that get most of their revenues
from publicity try to make their medium a good place for communicating ads
before anything else. The clearest example is television, where broadcasters try to
make the public stay for a long time in a mental state that encourages spectators not
to switch the channel during advertisements. Programs that are low in mental
stimulus, require light concentration and are varied best for long sitting times.
These also make for much easier emotional transition to ads, which are
occasionally more entertaining than the regular shows. A simple way to understand
objectives in television programming is to compare the content of programs paid
for and chosen by the viewer with those on channels that get their income mainly
from advertisements.
In several books, articles and videos, communication professor Sut Jhally
has argued that pervasive commercial advertising, by constantly reinforcing a
bogus association between consumption and happiness and by focusing on
individual immediate needs, leads to a squandering of resources and stands in the
way of a discussion of fundamental societal and long-term needs.
9. Read and translate the text. Make up 5 negative sentences and 5 questions
for additional information to the text. Retell the text.
The basics of a print ad.
There are several key elements in a print advertisement. They are headline,
text, artwork, and layout.
Headline. Advertising expert John Caples says, "The headline is the most
important element in most ads - and the best headlines appeal to the reader's self-
interest or give news".
Headlines should be specific about a benefit, or they can be teasers that
arouse interest. Here is a headline about a specific program: "The Phoenix Mutual
Insurance Retirement Income Plan". Caples thought this was all right, but he created
a headline that sold much more successfully: "To Men Who Want to Quit Work Some
Day". This was accompanied with an illustration of a smiling senior citizen fishing in
a mountain stream.
Text. The headline is followed by what is known as text or body copy. This
is the words that persuade the reader to do something. In general, copy should be
limited to only one or two major points. Sentences should be short and punchy. A
declarative sentence is much better than one that includes a dependent or an
independent clause.
The copy should invoke emotion, provide information of value to the
reader, and suggest a way that the reader can act on the information. You might
25 40
the companies are, the bigger their relation becomes, maximizing control over a from naturally scarce precious metals and shells to entirely artificial money such as
single piece of information. banknotes. Modern money (and most ancient money too) is essentially a token —
Advertisers may try to minimize information about or from consumer in other words, an abstraction. Paper currency is perhaps the most common type of
groups, consumer-controlled purchasing initiatives (as joint purchase systems), or physical money today. However, goods such as gold or silver retain many of
consumer-controlled quality information systems. money's essential properties.
Another indirect effect of advertising is to modify the nature of the The use of proto-money may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. In
communication media where it is shown. Media that get most of their revenues cultures where metal working was unknown, shell or ivory jewellery were the most
from publicity try to make their medium a good place for communicating ads divisible, easily storable and transportable, scarce, and hard to counterfeit objects
before anything else. The clearest example is television, where broadcasters try to that could be made.
make the public stay for a long time in a mental state that encourages spectators not Bartering has several problems, most notably the coincidence of wants
to switch the channel during advertisements. Programs that are low in mental problem, but even if a farmer growing fruit and a wheat-field farmer need what the
stimulus, require light concentration and are varied best for long sitting times. other produces a direct barter swap is impossible for seasonal fruit that would spoil
These also make for much easier emotional transition to ads, which are before the grain harvest. A solution is an indirect trade through a third,
occasionally more entertaining than the regular shows. A simple way to understand "intermediate", commodity: the fruit is exchanged for this when it ripens. By
objectives in television programming is to compare the content of programs paid overcoming the limitations of simple barter, a commodity money makes the
for and chosen by the viewer with those on channels that get their income mainly market in all other commodities more liquid.
from advertisements. Where trade is common, barter systems usually lead quite rapidly to
In several books, articles and videos, communication professor Sut Jhally several key goods being imbued with monetary properties. The emergence of
has argued that pervasive commercial advertising, by constantly reinforcing a monetary goods is a quite natural market phenomenon.
bogus association between consumption and happiness and by focusing on From early times, metals, where available, have usually been favored for
individual immediate needs, leads to a squandering of resources and stands in the use as money over such commodities as cattle, cowry shells, or salt, because they
way of a discussion of fundamental societal and long-term needs. are at once durable, portable, and easily divisible.
The use of gold as money has begun in the fourth millennium B.C. when
9. Read and translate the text. Make up 5 negative sentences and 5 questions the Egyptians used gold bars of a set weight as a medium of exchange. The first
for additional information to the text. Retell the text. gold coins were introduced about 650 B.C. in Lydia (now western Turkey).
Coins were typically minted by governments in a carefully protected
The basics of a print ad. process, and then stamped with an emblem that guaranteed the weight and value of
There are several key elements in a print advertisement. They are headline, the metal.
text, artwork, and layout. Metal based coins had the advantage of carrying their value within the
Headline. Advertising expert John Caples says, "The headline is the most coins themselves — on the other hand, they induced manipulations: the clipping of
important element in most ads - and the best headlines appeal to the reader's self- coins in the attempt to get and recycle the precious metal. A greater problem was
interest or give news". the simultaneous co-existence of gold, silver and copper coins in Europe. English
Headlines should be specific about a benefit, or they can be teasers that and Spanish traders valued gold coins more than silver coins, as many of their
arouse interest. Here is a headline about a specific program: "The Phoenix Mutual neighbors did, with the effect that the English gold-based guinea coin began to rise
Insurance Retirement Income Plan". Caples thought this was all right, but he created against the English silver based crown in the 1670s and 1680s.
a headline that sold much more successfully: "To Men Who Want to Quit Work Some Stability came into the system with national Banks guaranteeing to change
Day". This was accompanied with an illustration of a smiling senior citizen fishing in money into gold at a promised rate; it did, however, not come easily. The Bank of
a mountain stream. England risked a national financial catastrophe in the 1730s when customers
Text. The headline is followed by what is known as text or body copy. This demanded their money be changed into gold in a moment of crisis. Eventually
is the words that persuade the reader to do something. In general, copy should be London's merchants saved the bank and the nation with financial guarantees.
limited to only one or two major points. Sentences should be short and punchy. A Another step in the evolution of money was the change from a coin being
declarative sentence is much better than one that includes a dependent or an a unit of weight to being a unit of value. A distinction could be made between its
independent clause. commodity value and its specie value. The difference is these values is
The copy should invoke emotion, provide information of value to the seigniorage.
reader, and suggest a way that the reader can act on the information. You might The system of commodity money in many instances evolved into a system
40 25
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